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Developing a Common Metric for Evaluating Police Performance in Deadly Force Situations in the United States, 2009-2011 (ICPSR 33141)

Released/updated on: 2014-06-18

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 2009-07-01--2011-09-01

This study developed interval-level measurement scales for evaluating police officer performance during real or simulated deadly force situations. Through a two-day concept mapping focus group, statements were identified to describe two sets of dynamics: the difficulty (D) of a deadly force situation and the performance (P) of a police officer in that situation. These statements were then operationalized into measurable Likert-scale items that were scored by 291 use of force instructors from more than 100 agencies across the United States using an online survey instrument. The dataset resulting from this process contains a total of 685 variables, comprised of 312 difficulty statement items, 278 performance statement items, and 94 variables that measure the demographic characteristics of the scorers.

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Evaluating the Effects of Fatigue on Police Patrol Officers in Lowell, Massachusetts, Polk County, Florida, Portland, Oregon, and Arlington County, Virginia, 1997-1998 (ICPSR 2974)

Released/updated on: 2006-03-30

Geographic coverage: Oregon, United States, Lowell, Massachusetts, Portland (Oregon), Florida, Virginia

Time period: 1997-01-01--1998-01-01

This study was undertaken to assess the connections between administratively controllable sources of fatigue among police patrol officers and problems such as diminished performance, accidents, and illness. The study sought to answer: (1) What is the prevalence of officer fatigue, and what are officers' attitudes toward it? (2) What are the causes or correlates of officer fatigue? (3) How does fatigue affect officer safety, health, and job performance? and (4) Can officer fatigue be measured objectively? The final sample was comprised of all sworn, nonsupervisory police officers assigned full-time to patrol and/or community policing functions on the day that data collection began at each of four selected sites: Lowell, Massachusetts, Polk County, Florida, Portland, Oregon, and Arlington County, Virginia. Part 1, Fatigue Survey Data, includes demographic data and officers' responses from the initial self-report survey. Variables include the extent to which the respondent felt hot or cold, experienced uncomfortable breathing, bad dreams, or pain while sleeping, the time the respondent usually went to bed, number of hours slept each night, quality of sleep, whether medicine was taken as a sleep aid, estimated hours worked in a one-, two-, seven-, and thirty-day period, how overtime affected income, family relationships, and social activities, and reasons for feeling tired. Part 2, Demographic and Fatigue Survey Data, is comprised of data obtained from administrative records and demographic data forms. Several measures from the initial self-report survey are also included in Part 2. Variables focus on respondents' age, sex, race, marital status, global score on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index scale, total years as a police officer assigned to any agency and current agency, and total years worked in current shift. Data for Part 3, FIT and Administrative Data, were obtained from administrative records and from the fitness-for-duty (FIT) workplace screener test. Variables include a pupilometry index score and the dates, time, and particular shift (days, evenings, or midnight) the officer started working when the pupilometry test was administered. Part 3 also includes the number of hours worked by the officer in a regular shift or in association with overtime, the number of sick leave hours taken by the officer, and whether the officer was involved in an on-duty accident, injured on duty, or commended by his/her department during a particular shift.

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Evaluation of Less-Lethal Technologies on Police Use-of-Force Outcomes in 13 Sites in the United States, 1992-2007 (ICPSR 27561)

Released/updated on: 2013-10-29

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 1992-01-01--2007-01-01

The study examined how law enforcement agencies (LEAs) manage the use of force by officers. It was conducted to produce practical information that can help LEAs establish guidelines that assist in the effective design of Conducted Energy Device (CED) deployment programs that support increased safety for officers and citizens. The study used a quasi-experimental design to compare seven LEAs with CED deployment to a set of six matched LEAs that did not deploy CEDs on a variety of safety outcomes. From 2006-2008, data were collected on the details of every use of force incident during a specified time period (1992-2007), as well as demographic and crime statistics for each site. For the agencies that deployed CEDs, at least two years of data on use of force incidents were collected for the period before CED deployment and at least two years of data for the period after CED deployment. For the agencies that did not deploy CEDs, at least four years of data were collected over a similar period.

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Evidence-Based Solutions to Reduce Law Enforcement Officer Vehicular Crashes, California, 2000-2009 (ICPSR 36752)

Released/updated on: 2023-03-16

Geographic coverage: United States, California

Time period: 2000-01-01--2009-01-01

This study uses data on officer involved vehicle collisions in the state of California from 2000 - 2009 to conduct a comprehensive analysis of these events that resulting fatal, non-fatal injury, and non-injury outcomes. This project focuses on the analysis of incident and officer level factors that influence officer-involved vehicle crash rates, including potential differential influence these factors on the fatal and non-fatal injury outcomes. The underlying goal of the resulting analysis is to better inform the law enforcement and research communities about the impact and nature of these collisions to support the development of policies, programs, and training to reduce the occurrence of such events, particularly those that result in injuries and fatalities to officers and citizens.

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Felonious Homicides of American Police Officers, 1977-1992 (ICPSR 3187)

Released/updated on: 2006-03-30

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 1977-01-01--1992-01-01

The study was a comprehensive analysis of felonious killings of officers. The purposes of the study were (1) to analyze the nature and circumstances of incidents of felonious police killings and (2) to analyze trends in the numbers and rates of killings across different types of agencies and to explain these differences. For Part 1, Incident-Level Data, an incident-level database was created to capture all incidents involving the death of a police officer from 1983 through 1992. Data on officers and incidents were collected from the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) data collection as coded by the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program. In addition to the UCR data, the Police Foundation also coded information from the LEOKA narratives that are not part of the computerized LEOKA database from the FBI. For Part 2, Agency-Level Data, the researchers created an agency-level database to research systematic differences among rates at which law enforcement officers had been feloniously killed from 1977 through 1992. The investigators focused on the 56 largest law enforcement agencies because of the availability of data for explanatory variables. Variables in Part 1 include year of killing, involvement of other officers, if the officer was killed with his/her own weapon, circumstances of the killing, location of fatal wounds, distance between officer and offender, if the victim was wearing body armor, if different officers were killed in the same incident, if the officer was in uniform, actions of the killer and of the officer at entry and final stage, if the killer was visible at first, if the officer thought the killer was a felon suspect, if the officer was shot at entry, and circumstances at anticipation, entry, and final stages. Demographic variables for Part 1 include victim's sex, age, race, type of assignment, rank, years of experience, agency, population group, and if the officer was working a security job. Part 2 contains variables describing the general municipal environment, such as whether the agency is located in the South, level of poverty according to a poverty index, population density, percent of population that was Hispanic or Black, and population aged 15-34 years old. Variables capturing the crime environment include the violent crime rate, property crime rate, and a gun-related crime index. Lastly, variables on the environment of the police agencies include violent and property crime arrests per 1,000 sworn officers, percentage of officers injured in assaults, and number of sworn officers.

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Harnessing Existing Technologies to Mitigate Driving Distraction Among Law Enforcement Officers, Iowa, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Wyoming, 2019 (ICPSR 38994)

Released/updated on: 2026-06-29

Geographic coverage: Iowa, United States, Wyoming, Tennessee, Wisconsin

Nearly half of the law enforcement officers killed in the line of duty in the United States were due to automobile crashes. Driver distraction has been identified as a common causal factor leading to the crash, with the primary source of distractions being the mobile computer. While there is plenty of literature on officer safety, what is lacking is an understanding of the needs of the officers to interact with the control or communication equipment while driving and how that interaction impacts distraction and, consequently, officer safety. To examine these issues, the research team conducted focus group discussions with law enforcement officers from local, county, and state agencies in four states. The two primary topics of discussion were:

Officer requirements to operate different pieces of equipment while driving, and
Different software and systems being used in patrol cars.

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Law Enforcement Officers Safety and Wellness: A Multi-Level Study, United States, 2017-2020 (ICPSR 37821)

Released/updated on: 2022-06-16

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 2017-01-01--2020-06-30

The objective of this study was to assess the role of traumatic exposures, operational and organizational stressors, and personal behaviors on law enforcement safety and wellness. The goal was to provide the necessary data to help researchers, Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs), and policymakers design policies and programs to address risk factors for Law Enforcement Officers' (LEOs) wellness and safety outcomes. The project objectives were to identify profiles of LEAs who are using best practices in addressing officer safety and wellness (OSAW); determine the extent to which specific occupational, organizational, and personal stressors distinguish OSAW outcomes identify whether modifiable factors such as coping, social support, and healthy lifestyles moderate the relationship between stressors and OSAW outcomes; and investigate which LEA policies/programs have the potential to moderate OSAW outcomes.

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Law Enforcement Officers Safety and Wellness: A Multi-Level Study, United States, 2020-2022 (ICPSR 39030)

Released/updated on: 2025-01-16

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 2020-01-01--2022-03-01

The Law Enforcement Officer Safety and Wellness Initiative (OSAW) is a nationally representative longitudinal multi-level study of law enforcement officer safety, health, and wellness. The specific objectives of this phase of OSAW research were to [1] Identify the range of beliefs about the prestige of law enforcement officer (LEO) and correctional officer (CO) work and officer job satisfaction, as well as the longitudinal patterns of officer stress and resilience among officers (building on OSAW-A measurement of stressors, safety and health, and the extent to which these estimates vary by gender and by officer assignment); [2] Investigate how officer job satisfaction and perceptions of occupational prestige affect their stress, resilience, and job performance, and the extent to which this relationship varies by gender and officer duty assignment; and [3] Identify whether job satisfaction impacts officers' coping skills and resilience, and whether coping skills and resilience moderate the association between stressors, stress outcomes, and job performance.

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Reducing Traffic-Related Officer Fatalities and Injuries Through Technology Enhancements and Policy, United States, 2013-2021 (ICPSR 39075)

Released/updated on: 2026-01-28

Geographic coverage: United States

Time period: 2013-01-01--2021-01-01

Police officers rely on technology to safely arrive to scenes of emergency response. Although the technology in vehicles is becoming more sophisticated, it also presents a hazard while trying to safely operate a vehicle, often at high speeds. Increased refinement and understanding of the technologies are needed, including how they can be controlled and what is acceptable use for modern-day police officers.

The two objectives of this research were 1) to determine ways to improve police officer safety by evaluating technology enhancements that improve information delivery to officers in patrol vehicles and 2) to evaluate agency driving policies for response-to-calls service using crash and arrest data, specifically to investigate if vehicle driving speed influences a call's outcome. These objectives were achieved using parallel research investigations, including a qualitative analysis of how officers perceived and reacted to technology enhancements that were deployed in patrol vehicles. Focus groups and a follow-up survey were conducted so officers could provide feedback on the role of technology and the specific software programs implemented during the study for evaluation. Agency traffic crash data and computer-aided dispatch response-to-call data were also analyzed to determine the impact of response-to-call speed cap policies.

This collection contains data representing six police agencies across the United States: response-to-call data (DS1-DS4), vehicle crash data (DS5-DS7), post-intervention officer survey data (DS8), and pre-intervention officer focus group data (DS9). NOTE: Focus group data are not currently available.