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Examining Radicalization's Risk and Protective Factors: A Case-Control Study of Violent Extremists, Non-Violent Criminal Extremists, Non-Offending Extremists, and Regular Violent Offenders, United States, 1990-2020 (ICPSR 39026)

Released/updated on: 2025-08-14
Geographic coverage: United States
Time period: 1990-01-01--2020-01-01

This project examined the multidimensional pathways that led to extremism and extremist behaviors. The focus of the research was to examine risk and protective factors that either directly, or in combination, interact to increase or mitigate the risk of radicalization and terrorism.

This project comparatively examined the presence/absence of risk and protective factors across three groups:

  1. extremist individuals who committed ideologically motivated violent (fatal and non-fatal violent attacks) and nonviolent (financial) crimes
  2. extremists who did not break the law and only engaged in legal extremist activities
  3. persons who committed non-ideological motivated homicides and other violent attacks

Thus, researchers accomplished four major goals/objectives in this project. First, although there has been a good amount of radicalization and risk assessment-related research on risk and protective factors, researchers expanded this work with comparative analyses that have not been previously explored. Second, few studies compared violent or nonviolent criminal extremists to nonoffending extremists or other types of violent offenders. Third, researchers used a case-control approach to provide an empirically robust understanding of categorical differences across groups that have not yet been achieved. Fourth, researchers examined differences in participation of warning behaviors across the groups studied.

The data file includes 971 cases.

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Investigating Root Causes of School Violence: A Case-Control Study of School Violence Offenders, Non-School Youth Violence Offenders, and Non-Offending Youths, United States, 1990-2020 (ICPSR 39020)

Released/updated on: 2024-10-30
Geographic coverage: United States
Time period: 1990-01-01--2020-01-01

This study investigated root causes of school shootings by using a case-control methodology to compare 157 adolescent school shooters (cases) to samples of two key comparison groups: 157 non-school adolescent shooting offenders and 157 non-offending youths who attended the same school as the school shooter (controls) in the United States between 1990 and 2020 (overall n=471). Specifically, the researchers compared:

  1. Adolescent school shooters who committed shootings both fatal and non-fatal to adolescents who committed shootings both fatal and non-fatal outside school grounds in the community.
  2. Adolescent school shooters who committed homicide to adolescents who committed shooting homicides outside school grounds in the community.
  3. Adolescent school shooters who caused non-fatal injuries to adolescents who committed non-fatal shootings with injuries outside school grounds in the community.
  4. Adolescent school shooters to non-offending students from the same school.

All groups were compared on items theorized to be risk and protective factors to crime based on major criminology theories, such as social learning, general strain, social control, bio-social, life course, and psychology. Building upon the methodology used in The American School Shooting Study (TASSS), this study relied on open-source, content analysis research methods to obtain all publicly available information on the sampled individuals. Files were collected from over 60 databases, major search engines, and archival resources, which were then reviewed and coded by the research team for evidence of risk and protective factors.

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Measuring Police-Community Interaction Variables in Indianapolis, 1999-2000 (ICPSR 4355)

Released/updated on: 2007-06-28
Geographic coverage: Indiana, United States, Indianapolis
Time period: 2000-08-28--2000-10-10, 1999-07-01--2000-06-01, 1999-07-01--2000-06-01
This study, funded under the Measuring What Matters Program, was conducted to identify general neighborhood strengthening, or community building, processes and police contributions to them. The purpose of the study, also known as the Police-Community Interaction Project (PCIP), was to conceive, identify, or define recognizable patterns of interaction and to find ways to treat these as quantities that vary in amount and can be shown to fluctuate over time or across places. To that end, researchers conducted surveys of block clubs, neighborhood associations, and umbrella groups to gauge the issues that were important to them, steps they were taking to address these issues, and the ways in which they interacted with the police. Researchers also attended the meetings and events held by the Westside Cooperative Organization (WESCO), an umbrella group, and gathered coded data about the meetings, events and issues discussed. Specific variables in the study include demographic variables about the blocks, neighborhoods, and districts represented by the organizations, descriptive variables on the organizations themselves, variables describing issues of importance to the organizations and steps those organizations were taking to address the issues, variables to describe the interaction between the organizations and police, and variables describing police involvement in community activities.
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A Multi-Site Assessment of Police Consolidation: California, Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, 2014-2015 (ICPSR 36951)

Released/updated on: 2018-10-25
Geographic coverage: Minnesota, California, Michigan, Pennsylvania
Time period: 2015-02-01--2015-07-01, 2014-12-02--2015-06-17, 2014-11-06--2015-04-08, 2014-11-03--2015-08-14, 2014-11-19--2015-08-30

These data are part of NACJD's Fast Track Release and are distributed as they were received from the data depositor. The files have been zipped by NACJD for release but not checked or processed except for the removal of direct identifiers. Users should refer to the accompanying readme file for a brief description of the files available with this collection and consult the investigator(s) if further information is needed.

The study gathered information from police officers and residents of four different community areas that had undergone some form of police consolidation or contracting. The communities were the city of Pontiac in Michigan; the cities of Chisago and Lindstrom in Minnesota; York and Windsor Townships and the boroughs of Felton, Jacobus, Yoe, Red Lion, and Windsor in Pennsylvania; and the city of Compton in California. Surveys were administered to gauge the implementation and effectiveness of three models of police consolidation: merger of agencies, regionalization under which two or more agencies join to provide services in a broader area, and contracting by municipalities with other organizations for police services.

The collection includes 5 SPSS files:

  • ComptonFinal_Masked-by-ICPSR.sav (176 cases / 99 variables)
  • MinnesotaFinal_Masked-by-ICPSR.sav (228 cases / 99 variables)
  • PontiacFinal_Masked-by-ICPSR.sav (230 cases / 99 variables)
  • YorkFinal_Masked-by-ICPSR.sav (219 cases / 99 variables)
  • OfficerWebFINALrecodesaug2015revised_Masked-by-ICPSR.sav (139 cases / 88 variables)
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Neighborhood Violence in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1996-2007 (ICPSR 28441)

Released/updated on: 2012-09-24
Geographic coverage: United States, Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh
Time period: 1996-01-01--2007-01-01
This study assessed the implementation and impact of the One Vision One Life (OVOL) violence-prevention strategy in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 2003, the rise in violence in Pittsburgh prompted community leaders to form the Allegheny County Violence Prevention Imitative, which became the OVOL program. The OVOL program sought to prevent violence using a problem-solving, data-driven model to inform how community organizations and outreach teams respond to homicide incidents. The research team examined the impact of the OVOL program on violence using a quasi-experimental design to compare violence trends in the program's target areas before and after implementation to (1) trends in Pittsburgh neighborhoods where One Vision was not implemented, and (2) trends in specific nontarget neighborhoods whose violence and neighborhood dynamics One Vision staff contended were most similar to those of target neighborhoods. The Pittsburgh Bureau of Police provided the violent-crime data, which the research team aggregated into monthly counts. The Pittsburgh Department of City Planning provided neighborhood characteristics data, which were extracted from the 2000 Census. Monthly data were collected on 90 neighborhoods in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania from 1996 to 2007, resulting in 12,960 neighborhood-by-month observations.
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Reducing Violent Crime and Firearms Violence in Indianapolis, Indiana, 2003-2005 (ICPSR 20357)

Released/updated on: 2009-01-30
Geographic coverage: Indiana, United States, Indianapolis
Time period: 2003-06-01--2005-03-01
The lever-pulling model was first developed as part of a broad-based, problem-solving effort implemented in Boston in the mid-1990s. The lever-pulling strategy was a foundational element of many collaborative partnerships across the country and it was a central element of the strategic plans of many Project Safe Neighborhoods (PSN) jurisdictions. This effort attempted to deter the future violent behavior of chronic offenders by first communicating directly to them about the impact that violence had on the community and the implementation of new efforts to respond to it, and then giving credibility to this communication effort by using all available legal sanctions (i.e., levers) against these offenders when violence occurred. The purpose of the study was to perform an experimental evaluation of a lever-pulling strategy implemented in Indianapolis, Indiana. Probationers were randomly assigned to the law enforcement focused lever-pulling group, the community leader lever-pulling group, or a regular probation control group during six months between June 2003 and March 2004. There were a total of 540 probationers in the study--180 probationers in each group. Probationers in the law enforcement focused lever-pulling group had face-to-face meetings with federal and local law enforcement officials and primarily received a deterrence-based message, but community officials also discussed various types of job and treatment opportunities. In contrast, probationers in the community leader lever-pulling group attended meetings with community leaders and service providers who exclusively focused on the impact of violence on the community and available services. Three types of data were collected to assess perceptions about the meeting: offending behavior, program participation behavior, and the levers pulled. First, data were collected using a self-report survey instrument (Part 1). Second, the complete criminal history for probationers (Part 2) was collected one-year after their meeting date. Third, all available probation data (Part 3) were collected 365 days after the meeting date. Part 1, Self-Report Survey Data, includes a total of 316 variables related to the following three types of data: Section I: meeting evaluation and perception of risk, Section II: Self-reported offense and gun use behavior, and Section III: Demographics. Part 2, Criminal History Data, includes a total of 94 variables collected about the probationer's complete offending history as well as their criminal activities after the treatment for one year. Part 3, Probation Data, includes a total of 249 variables related to probation history and other outcome data.
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Understanding the Causes of School Violence Using Open Source Data, United States, 1990-2016 (ICPSR 37935)

Released/updated on: 2021-09-30
Geographic coverage: United States
Time period: 1990-01-01--2016-12-31
This study provides an evidence-based understanding on etiological issues related to school shootings and rampage shootings. It created a national, open-source database that includes all publicly known shootings that resulted in at least one injury that occurred on K-12 school grounds between 1990 and 2016. The investigators sought to better understand the nature of the problem and clarify the types of shooting incidents occurring in schools, provide information on the characteristics of school shooters, and compare fatal shooting incidents to events where only injuries resulted to identify intervention points that could be exploited to reduce the harm caused by shootings. To accomplish these objectives, the investigators used quantitative multivariate and qualitative case studies research methods to document where and when school violence occurs, and highlight key incident and perpetrator level characteristics to help law enforcement and school administrators differentiate between the kinds of school shootings that exist, to further policy responses that are appropriate for individuals and communities.
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