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Abstract

The increasing reliance on digital technologies in education has intensified concerns regarding unequal access to digital resources across countries, particularly in developing regions. While digital connectivity has the potential to enhance learning opportunities, disparities in internet access and technological infrastructure may contribute to unequal educational outcomes. This study examines the relationship between the digital divide and educational inequality in Asia through a cross-country secondary data analysis of connectivity, access, and student achievement. Using publicly available datasets from the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the study analyzes key indicators of internet access, digital infrastructure, student achievement, and educational inequality across selected Asian countries. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and multiple regression models were employed to examine structural associations among variables. The results indicate that internet access is positively associated with student achievement and negatively associated with educational inequality. Digital infrastructure also demonstrates positive associations with educational performance and lower levels of inequality. In contrast, rural population is negatively associated with student achievement and positively associated with educational inequality. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of digital connectivity and technological capacity in shaping both the quality and equity dimensions of education systems across diverse national contexts.

Author Biographies

Mhel Cedric D. Bendo, Polytechnic University of the Philippines–Maragondon Campus

Mhel Cedric D. Bendo is a student researcher and academic writer pursuing a Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship at Polytechnic University of the Philippines–Maragondon Campus. His research interests include mobile learning, digital learning environments, AI in education, educational psychology, curriculum studies, educational assessment, and financial technology (FinTech). He serves on the editorial boards of the SIAR-Global Journal of Humanities, Management & Educational Review, SIAR-Global Journal of Literatures & Educational Review, the International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Exploration (IJMRE), and the International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Application (IJAMA), and also works as a technical editor for an international academic journal. He is a reviewer for multiple international peer-reviewed journals, including Cogent Education (Taylor & Francis). He is an active researcher who has authored several studies published and forthcoming in international and Scopus-indexed journals, while his research-informed commentary has appeared in national and regional Philippine newspapers, including the Manila Bulletin.

Dr. Domar C. Alviar, National University–Manila

Domar C. Alviar is an Associate Professor at National University–Manila, where he is a 2026 Gawad Pantas awardee. He holds a Master of Development Communication and Doctor of Communication from the University of the Philippines Open University. A CHED-SIKAP scholar, his research interests include development communication, systems thinking, ethnomethodology and conversation analysis (EMCA), media ethics, law, and ethical artificial intelligence in education. He serves on the Steering Committee of the Philippine International Studies Organization (PHISO) and contributes to academic discussions on academic integrity, higher education, and ethical AI. He previously worked in Middle East and North Africa customs relations and international supply management and served as publications and communications editor at Adamson University. He writes the “Inside Academe” column for Tutubi.ph and contributes opinion articles to national broadsheets, including the Philippine Daily Inquirer and other publications.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements), and detailed questions about mental health, substance abuse, and educational services provided to young persons.

In 2022, the JRFC was divided into seven sections:

1. General facility information
2. Mental health services
3. Educational services
4. Substance abuse services
5. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
6. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
7. Space shared with other facilities

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October (October 26, 2022).

Education is an essential part of childhood, and attending school is vital to community integration for children with special health care needs. These children continue to face significant barriers to obtaining a high-quality educational experience, despite decades of federal legislation designed to promote full inclusion and access to schools for everyone. Children with special health care needs often struggle with school functioning because chronic health problems increase the risk for lengthy illnesses and hospitalizations. Pediatric rehabilitation specialists assist these children and their families with the transition back to school after a health event. However, there is a lack of information available to help clinicians, families, and educators plan for the dynamic experience of disability as a child develops and interacts with the school environment. Healthcare providers need this information to evaluate their transition services from hospital to community and develop new interventions that can improve the educational success of these children over time. The purpose of this project was to engage former patients and their families to identify the school experiences and processes that affect their return to school, a key aspect of community integration, after medical rehabilitation. This study used focus groups with parents, former patients, and clinicians to understand the experience of return to school after pediatric rehabilitation, identify barriers and supports, and the impact on educational outcomes based on lived experience.

The MTF study consists of six different survey forms (forms 1-5 began in 1976; form 6 was added in 1989). This study contains the data for Form 6 longitudinal panel participants. The MTF Form 6 Panel dataset includes data for the base year (BY) 12th grade surveys (modal age 18) and their young adult follow-up FU surveys (modal ages 19-30).

In addition to demographic-related questions and questions about lifetime, annual, and 30-day substance use that are included on all survey forms (see the core panel listing), Form 6 also includes questions covering:

• Attitudes toward governmental policies and practices
• Attitudes towards discrimination
• Dating, marriage, and family
• Delinquency and victimization
• Expected future substance use
• Flavored alcohol, alcohol+caffeine
• Health behaviors, COVID-19
• High school: Delinquency, victimization, and feeling safe at school
• High school: scholastic status, objectives, experiences, activities
• Leisure time activities, high school and post-high school
• Methods of marijuana use
• Non-prescription substance use including Ritalin, Adderall, Oxycontin, Vicodin, Fentanyl
• Others' attitudes regarding drugs and drug users
• Own attitudes about substance use
• Perceived availability of substances
• Perceived risk of substance use
• Perception of others' substance use behaviors
• Psychosocial domains: boredom, loneliness, self-esteem, depressive affect, social support, self-efficacy, risk taking
• Reasons for non-use: crack, other cocaine
• Satisfaction with life
• Smokeless tobacco
• Substance use initiation
• Tobacco Promotional Activities

Please see the study documentation available on the MTF Panel series page for question-specific details, including content areas included in all survey forms.

NOTE: Researchers are encouraged to begin their work with the "core" data file, NAHDAP study 39223. Please see the User's Guide, section IV. Working with the MTF Restricted Panel Data, for details.

More information about the MTF project can be accessed through the Monitoring the Future website. Annual reports are published by the research team, describing the data collection and trends over time.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements), and detailed questions about mental health, substance abuse, and educational services provided to young persons.

In 2020, the JRFC was divided into eight sections:

1. General facility information
2. Mental health services
3. Educational services
4. Substance abuse services
5. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
6. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
7. Space shared with other facilities
8. Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19)

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October (October 28, 2020).

The 2012 National Survey of Early Care and Education (NSECE) is a set of four integrated, nationally representative surveys conducted in 2012. These were surveys of (1) households with children under 13, (2) home-based providers, (3) center-based providers, and (4) the center-based provider workforce.

The 2012 NSECE documents the nation's current utilization and availability of early care and education (including school-age care), in order to deepen the understanding of the extent to which families' needs and preferences coordinate well with providers' offerings and constraints. The experiences of low-income families are of special interest as they are the focus of a significant component of early care and education and school-age child care (ECE/SACC) public policy. The 2012 NSECE calls for nationally-representative samples including interviews in all 50 states and Washington, DC.

The study is funded by the Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation (OPRE) in the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), United States Department of Health and Human Services. The project team is led by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at the University of Chicago, in partnership with Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago and Child Trends.

The Quick Tabulation and Public-Use Files are currently available via this site. Restricted-Use Files are also available at three different access levels; to determine which level of file access will best meet your needs, please see the NSECE Data Files Overview for more information.

Level 1 Restricted-Use Files are available via the Child and Family Data Archive. To obtain the Level 1 files, researchers must agree to the terms and conditions of the Restricted Data Use Agreement and complete an application via ICPSR's online Data Access Request System.

Level 2 and 3 Restricted-Use Files are available via the National Opinion Research Center (NORC). For more information, please see the access instructions for NSECE Levels 2/3 Restricted-Use Data.

For additional information about this study, please see:

• NSECE project page on the OPRE website
• NSECE study page on NORC's website
• NSECE Data Users Page

For more information, tutorials, and reports related to the National Survey of Early Care and Education, please visit the Child and Family Data Archive's Data Training Resources from the NSECE page.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements), and detailed questions about mental health, substance abuse, and educational services provided to young persons.

In 2018, the JRFC was divided into seven sections:

1. General facility information
2. Mental health services
3. Educational services
4. Substance abuse services
5. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
6. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
7. Space shared with other facilities

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements), and detailed questions about mental health, substance abuse, and educational services provided to young persons.

In 2016, the JRFC was divided into seven sections:

1. General facility information
2. Mental health services
3. Educational services
4. Substance abuse services
5. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
6. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
7. Space shared with other facilities

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October.

The Evaluation of Florida's Avon Park Youth Academy and STREET Smart Program, 2002-2008 contains data gathered on youth involved in programs which aim to increase educational outcomes, increase labor force participation, and reduce recidivism.

Avon Park Youth Academy (APYA) is a secure custody residential facility that provides specialized, remedial education and intensive vocational training to moderate risk youth committed to the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice (DJJ). The STREET Smart program (SS) was the reentry component of the program, which provided community support and educational and vocational services to APYA participants on a voluntary basis after their release to the community. In the last several years, APYA/SS has received national and international recognition as a "Promising Program" for juvenile offenders. Both the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) and the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) determined that a rigorous evaluation was required to assess whether APYA/SS could progress from a "Promising Program" to an "Evidence-based Practice."

To conduct this evaluation, the National Council on Crime and Delinquency (NCCD) designed and conducted a field trial that randomly assigned youth committed to DJJ to the APYA/SS program or a control group. This experimental design permitted a rigorous test of the hypothesis that compared to the control group, APYA/SS participants would demonstrate more positive educational achievement, increased labor force participation, and reduced recidivism outcomes after community release.

The 360 youth assigned to the experimental control group stayed at APYA for an average of 9.7 months from 2002-2005. Of these, 301 youth completed participation in the SS program by March 2006. The youth were observed for a three-year period after their community release dates. This included an interview following release from incarceration to collect data on educational achievements, employment, and justice system program experiences. All subjects had reached the 36-month follow-up threshold as of May 2008.

This study utilized: a national survey of law enforcement officials; a national survey of criminal justice faculty; a survey of criminal justice students at Arizona State University, Kutztown University, Michigan State University, and Sam Houston State University; four separate surveys of a small expert panel; and mini-case studies to investigate issues associated with police human resource management and planning, such as recruitment, selection, training, and promotion.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements).

In 2012, the JRFC was divided into four sections:

1. General facility information
2. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
3. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
4. Space shared with other facilities

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October.

The Juvenile Residential Facility Census (JRFC), which is conducted biennially, collects basic information on juvenile residential facility characteristics, including security, capacity and crowding, injuries and deaths in custody, and facility ownership and operation. The JRFC also includes questions about facility type (such as detention center, training school, ranch, or group home) and residential services provided by the facility (such as independent living, foster care, or other arrangements), and detailed questions about mental health, substance abuse, and educational services provided to young persons.

In 2014, the JRFC was divided into seven sections:

1. General facility information
2. Mental health services
3. Educational services
4. Substance abuse services
5. Events in the 30 days prior to the census reference date
6. Deaths in the year prior to the census reference date
7. Space shared with other facilities

Congress requires the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) to report annually on the number of deaths of juveniles in custody; the JRFC gathers this information and offers a portrait of the nation's juvenile facilities. The census reference date was the fourth Wednesday in October.